• Material cause: the lumber, bricks, and so forth from which the house is made.
• Efficient cause: the carpenter and his tools, which effect a change of form in the material .
• Formal cause: the blueprint that the carpenter is following.
• Final cause: the purpose for building the house - eg. shelter and privacy.

Causation in biology (from Mayr, 1997, pp.66-71)

• Causation in biology can take place through long chains of interaction leading to a final action. "causation in complex situations is an a posteriori reconstruction, or to put if differently, causation consists of a series of steps which, taken together, can be called the cause (ibid., pp.66-67)
• Ultimate and proximate causations
  • Ultimate causations
  • Proximate causations
• Pluralism
• Probablism

• Fallacy of misplaced concreteness
• Pluralism in biology. Important quote.